A number of companies in Japan, the USA and other countries began large-scale production of lithium-ion batteries in 1990-1991, based on incorporation (intercalation) of lithium ions into various anode and cathode materials. Initially, carbon materials with a layered structure served as anodes. In the 21st century, a huge number of studies have been published aimed at studying more efficient anode materials for subsequent generations of lithium-ion batteries, mainly based on silicon, tin, and a number of other metals and alloys. Progress has also been made in obtaining cheaper cathode materials. Starting from 2010–2012, a large number of experimental studies and generalizing works have been published with recommendations for rechargeable chemical c